"WWW" and "The web" redirect here. For other uses of WWW, see WWW (disambiguation). For other uses of web, see Web (disambiguation).

For the first web software, see WorldWideWeb.

The World Wide Web (www) is an open source information space where documents and other web resources are identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. It has become known simply as the Web. The World Wide Web was central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet.
The World Wide Web was invented by English scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. He wrote the first web browser in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland.
Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, and software components that are rendered in the user's web browser as coherent pages of multimedia content. Embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a common theme, a common domain name, or both, may be called a website. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions. Websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial purposes.

Main article: History of the World Wide Web

The NeXT Computer used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.

The corridor where WWW was born. CERN, ground floor of building No.1

Berners-Lee's vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985 the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe and in the Domain Name System (which the Uniform Resource Locator is built upon) came into being. In 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN.^[7]
In March 1989 Tim Berners-Lee issued a proposal to the management at CERN for a system called "Mesh" that referenced ENQUIRE, a database and software project he had built in 1980, which used the term "web" and described a more elaborate information management system based on links embedded in readable text: "Imagine, then, the references in this document all being associated with the network address of the thing to which they referred, so that while reading this document you could skip to them with a click of the mouse." Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the existing meanings of the word hypertext, a term that he says was coined in the 1950s. There is no reason, the proposal continues, why such hypertext links could not encompass multimedia documents including graphics, speech and video, so that Berners-Lee goes on to propose the term hypermedia.^[8]
With help from his colleague and fellow hypertext enthusiast Robert Cailliau he published a more formal proposal on 12 November 1990 to build a "Hypertext project" called "WorldWideWeb" (one word) as a "web" of "hypertext documents" to be viewed by "browsers" using a client–server architecture.^[9] At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for about two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test.
This proposal estimated that a read-only web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available." While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the wiki concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0 and RSS/Atom.^[10]
The proposal was modeled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, was a key player in the extension of SGML ISO 8879:1986 to Hypermedia within HyTime, but it was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration.

The CERN data center in 2010 housing some WWW servers

A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the world's first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web:^[11] the first web browser (which was a web editor as well); the first web server; and the first web pages,^[12] which described the project itself.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC-Chapel Hill in North Carolina announced in May 2013 that Berners-Lee gave him what he says is the oldest known web page during a 1991 visit to UNC. Jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer.^[13]
On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt.hypertext.^[14] This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet, although new users only accessed it after 23 August. For this reason this is considered the internaut's day. Several newsmedia have reported that the first photo on the Web was published by Berners-Lee in 1992, an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes taken by Silvano de Gennaro; Gennaro has disclaimed this story, writing that media were "totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism."^[15
The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in Palo Alto, California, to host the SPIRES-HEP database. Accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event. The World Wide Web Consortium's timeline says December 1992, whereas SLAC itself claims December 1991, as does a W3C document titled A Little History of the World Wide Web.
The underlying concept of hypertext originated in previous projects from the 1960s, such as the Hypertext Editing System (HES) at Brown University, Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based memex, which was described in the 1945 essay "As We May Think".
Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested that a marriage between the two technologies was possible to members of both technical communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies:

• a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier (UDI), later known as uniform resource locator (URL) and uniform resource identifier (URI);
• the publishing language HyperText Markup Language (HTML);
• the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

The World Wide Web had a number of differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The Web required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot. Unlike predecessors such as HyperCard, the World Wide Web was non-proprietary, making it possible to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due.^[22] Coming two months after the announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this produced a rapid shift away from Gopher and towards the Web. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW for Unix and the X Windowing System.

Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Abramatic of IBM, and Tim Berners-Lee at the 10th anniversary of the World Wide Web Consortium.

Scholars generally agree that a turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction^[23] of the Mosaic web browser^[24] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the U.S. High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative and the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, one of several computing developments initiated by U.S. Senator Al Gore.^[25] Prior to the release of Mosaic, graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages and the web's popularity was less than older protocols in use over the Internet, such as Gopher and Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS). Mosaic's graphical user interface allowed the Web to become, by far, the most popular Internet protocol.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet; a year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national computer research lab) with support from the European Commission DG InfSo; and in 1996, a third continental site was created in Japan at Keio University. By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still relatively small, but many notable websites were already active that foreshadowed or inspired today's most popular services.


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A browser is an application program that provides a way to look at and interact with all the information on the World Wide Web. The word "browser" seems to have originated prior to the Web as a generic term for user interfaces that let you browse (navigate through and read) text files online.

Technically, a Web browser is a client program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to make requests of Web servers throughout the Internet on behalf of the browser user. Most browsers support e-mail and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) but a Web browser is not required for those Internet protocols and more specialized client programs are more popular.
The first Web browser, called WorldWideWeb, was created in 1990. That browser's name was changed to Nexus to avoid confusion with the developing information space known as the World Wide Web. The first Web browser with a graphical user interface was Mosaic, which appeared in 1993. Many of the user interface features in Mosaic went into Netscape Navigator. Microsoft followed with its Internet Explorer (IE).
As of September 2006, Internet Explorer is the most commonly used browser, having won the so-called browser wars between IE and Netscape. Other browsers include:

• Firefox, which was developed from Mozilla (the open source version of Netscape).
• Flock, an open source browser based on Firefox and optimized for Web 2.0 features such as blogging and social bookmarking .
• Safari, a browser for Apple computers (at this writing, the third most popular browser).
• Lynx, a text-only browser for UNIX shell and VMS users.
• Opera, a fast and stable browser that's compatible with most relatively operating systems.

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Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer network with other networks through the use of gateways that provide a common method of routing information packets between the networks. The resulting system of interconnected networks is called an internetwork, or simply an internet. Internetworking is a combination of the words inter ("between") and networking; not internet-working or international-network.
The most notable example of internetworking is the Internet, a network of networks based on many underlying hardware technologies, but unified by an internetworking protocol standard, the Internet Protocol Suite, often also referred to as TCP/IP.
The smallest amount of effort to create an internet (an internetwork, not the Internet), is to have two LANs of computers connected to each other via a router. Simply using either a switch or a hub to connect two local area networks together doesn't imply internetworking, it just expands the original LAN.

Interconnection of networks

Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local area networks via some sort of wide area network. The original term for an internetwork was catenet.
The definition of an internetwork today includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as personal area networks. The network elements used to connect individual networks in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, were originally called gateways, but the term has been deprecated in this context, because of possible confusion with functionally different devices. Today the interconnecting gateways are called routers.
Another type of interconnection of networks often occurs within enterprises at the Link Layer of the networking model, i.e. at the hardware-centric layer below the level of the TCP/IP logical interfaces. Such interconnection is accomplished with network bridges and network switches. This is sometimes incorrectly termed internetworking, but the resulting system is simply a larger, single subnetwork, and no internetworking protocol, such as Internet Protocol, is required to traverse these devices. However, a single computer network may be converted into an internetwork by dividing the network into segments and logically dividing the segment traffic with routers. The Internet Protocol is designed to provide an unreliable (not guaranteed) packet service across the network. The architecture avoids intermediate network elements maintaining any state of the network. Instead, this function is assigned to the endpoints of each communication session. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize an appropriate Transport Layer protocol, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides a reliable stream. Some applications use a simpler, connection-less transport protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks which do not require reliable delivery of data or that require real-time service, such as video streaming ^[1] or voice chat.

Networking models

Two architectural models are commonly used to describe the protocols and methods used in internetworking.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and provides a rigorous description for layering protocol functions from the underlying hardware to the software interface concepts in user applications. Internetworking is implemented in the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the model.
The Internet Protocol Suite, also called the TCP/IP model of the Internet was not designed to conform to the OSI model and does not refer to it in any of the normative specifications in Requests for Comment and Internet standards. Despite similar appearance as a layered model, it uses a much less rigorous, loosely defined architecture that concerns itself only with the aspects of logical networking. It does not discuss hardware-specific low-level interfaces, and assumes availability of a Link Layer interface to the local network link to which the host is connected. Internetworking is facilitated by the protocols of its Internet Layer.






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The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, Great Britain, and France. The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the ARPANET (which would become the first network to use the Internet Protocol.) The first message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, NPL network, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of communications protocols. Donald Davies was the first to put theory into practice by designing a packet-switched network at the National Physics Laboratory in the UK, the first of its kind in the world and the cornerstone for UK research for almost two decades.^[1][2] Following, ARPANET further led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In the early 1980s the NSF funded the establishment for national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, which also created network access to the supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the very late 1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990,^[3] and the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
In the 1980s, the work of Tim Berners-Lee in the United Kingdom, on the World Wide Web, theorised the fact that protocols link hypertext documents into a working system,^[4] marking the beginning of the modern Internet. Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.^[5] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.

The Internet

 ^{Internet Society}

In a relatively short period of time, the Internet has had an amazing impact on almost every facet of our lives. With it, we are able access to new ideas, more information, unlimited possibilities, and a whole new world of communities. It has grown and evolved to influence how we interact, how we conduct business, how we learn, and how we proceed day to day. And as much as it has changed our lives, in the process, the Internet itself has changed too.





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The page "The nsfnet" does not exist. You can ask for it to be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

• National Science Foundation Network (redirect from NSFNET)
  History of the Internet The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the National Science
  43 KB (5,235 words) - 01:07, 29 October 2015
• Advanced Network and Services (category History of the Internet)
  September 1990 by the NSFNET partners (Merit Network, IBM, and MCI) to run the network infrastructure for the soon to be upgraded NSFNET Backbone Service
  6 KB (721 words) - 21:07, 3 September 2015
• Merit Network (category History of the Internet)
  the NSFNET backbone service. MichNet, Merit's regional network in Michigan was attached to NSFNET and in the early 1990s Merit began extending "the Internet"
  44 KB (4,915 words) - 01:43, 7 November 2015
• NEARnet (category History of the Internet)
  NEARnet was linked to the NSFNet backbone via connections to the John von Neumann Center network and NYSERNet. It also has a link to the Defense Research
  2 KB (255 words) - 04:39, 6 May 2014
• Network access point (category History of the Internet)
  of the publicly financed NSFNET Internet backbone. The National Science Foundation let contracts supporting the four NAPs, one to MFS Datanet for the preexisting
  5 KB (543 words) - 14:44, 14 October 2014
• History of the Internet
  and the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic. In the 1980s, the work
  130 KB (15,639 words) - 21:24, 19 November 2015
• 1995
  was completely privatized and the United States Government no longer funded it with public money - in April 1995 the NSFNET was retired. America Online
  64 KB (7,041 words) - 01:57, 23 November 2015
• Stephen Wolff (section Contributions to the Internet)
  to the academic community. The NSFNET was compatible with, interconnected to, and eventually replaced the ARPANET network. Wolff also conceived the Gigabit
  5 KB (582 words) - 23:20, 19 November 2014
• CERFnet (category Internet service providers of the United States)
  Susan Estrada of the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC). CERFnet was one of the NSFNET regional networks and a co-founder of the Commercial Internet
  1 KB (133 words) - 21:53, 27 May 2015
• Fuzzball router
  -W. Braun. The NSFNET Backbone Network. Proc. ACM SIGCOMM 87 Symposium (Stoweflake VT, August 1987), 191-196 Presentation at the NSFNET Legacy event
  3 KB (269 words) - 19:13, 18 October 2013
• Cornell University Center for Advanced Computing
  began the development of NSFNet, a TCP/IP-based computer network that could connect to the ARPANET, at the Cornell Center for Advanced Computing and the University
  5 KB (574 words) - 11:30, 3 May 2015
• Commercial Internet eXchange (category History of the Internet)
  through ARPANET, the Defense Communications Agency (DCA) through MILNET, the National Science Foundation (NSF) through CSNET and NSFNET, the NSF sponsored
  12 KB (1,552 words) - 13:36, 4 November 2015
• Packet switching (category History of the Internet)
  2009. NSFNET: The Partnership That Changed The World, Web site for an event held to celebrate the NSFNET, November 2007 "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone
  62 KB (7,569 words) - 22:04, 28 October 2015
• North American Network Operators' Group (category History of the Internet)
  leadership is provided by the NANOG Steering Committee, established in 2005, and a Program Committee. NANOG evolved from the NSFNET "Regional-Techs" meetings
  6 KB (620 words) - 15:01, 26 April 2015
• National Science Foundation (category Independent agencies of the United States government)
  The Internet project continued, now known as NSFNET. 1990–1999 In 1990 the NSF's appropriation passed $2 billion for the first time. NSF funded the development
  44 KB (5,118 words) - 17:52, 19 November 2015
• SURAnet (section Role of SURAnet in the development of the Internet)
  networks and one of the regional backbone computer networks that made up the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET). Many of the Internet communications
  5 KB (553 words) - 18:12, 30 October 2014
• Rick Boucher (category Members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia)
  hearings oversaw the transition of the Internet from a National Science Foundation managed government research project (known as NSFnet) to the private sector
  20 KB (1,388 words) - 18:18, 17 October 2015
• Dennis Jennings (Internet pioneer)
  for three critical decisions that shaped the subsequent development of NSFNET, the network that became the Internet. Dennis Jennings holds a 1st Class
  6 KB (711 words) - 21:55, 30 March 2015
• Yakov Rekhter
  one of the leading architects and a major software developer of the NSFNET Backbone Phase II. He co-designed the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the core
  3 KB (347 words) - 17:26, 23 June 2015
• MIDnet (category Articles created via the Article Wizard)
  MIDnet was one of the original regional networks on the NSFNET, the precursors to the Internet. Funded by the National Science Foundation in 1986, it
  1 KB (142 words) - 17:33, 1 April 2012

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(network to network)
In telecommunications, a network-to-network interface (NNI) is an interface that specifies signaling and management functions between two networks. An NNI circuit can be used for interconnection of signalling (e.g., SS7), Internet Protocol (IP) (e.g., MPLS) or ATM networks.
In networks based on MPLS or GMPLS, NNI is used for the interconnection of core Provider Routers (class 4 or higher). In the case of GMPLS, the type of interconnection can vary across Back-to-Back, EBGP or mixed NNI connection scenarios, depending on the type of VRF exchange used for interconnection. In case of Back-to-Back, VRF is necessary to create VLANs and subsequently sub-interfaces (VLAN headers and DLCI headers for Ethernet and frame relay network packets) on each interface used for the NNI circuit. In the case of eBGP NNI interconnection, P routers are taught how to dynamically exchange VRF records without VLAN creation. NNI also can be used for interconnection of two VoIP nodes. In cases of mixed or full-mesh scenarios, other NNI types are possible.
NNI interconnection is encapsulation independent, but Ethernet and Frame Relay are commonly used.





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ARPANET

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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For the producer, see Gerald Donald. For the seventh episode of the second season of the television series The Americans, see Arpanet (The Americans).

See also: History of the Internet

ARPANET
ARPANET logical map, March 1977
Type	Data
Location	United States
Protocols	NCP, TCP/IP
Established	1969; 46 years ago (1969)
Current status	Evolved into NSFNET
Commercial?	No
Funding	Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was an early packet switching network and the first network to implement the protocol suite TCP/IP. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. ARPANET was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense
Packet switching was based on concepts and designs by Americans Leonard Kleinrock and Paul Baran, British scientist Donald Davies and Lawrence Roberts of the Lincoln Laboratory.The TCP/IP communications protocols were developed for ARPANET by computer scientists Robert Kahn and Vint Cerf, and incorporated concepts by Louis Pouzin for the French CYCLADES project.





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